CC0006 BIBLE

Week 1: Sustainability

Paris Agreement (Adopted in 2015) - Work together to limit global warming and make financial commitments to achieve the goal of limiting global warming to preferably below 1.5 degrees. Updated in COP 26 Summit at Glasgow in November 2021. United Nations 17 Sustainable Development Goals (Adopted in 2015) - 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development which was adopted by all UN members (including Singapore) in hopes of sharing a blueprint for prosperity and peace for people and the planet, now and in the future. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change or IPCC regularly produces assessment reports that provide the latest scientific, technical and socioeconomic knowledge on climate change, its causes, potential impacts and response options. Singapore Green Plan 2030 NTU Sustainability Office - Aims to be carbon neutral (net-zero carbon dioxide emissions) by 2035. Reduce energy, water use and waste by 50% by March 2026 (from 2011 baseline levels). Moved up political agenda as we begin to see and feel the effects of climate change

• Global warming
• Extreme weather
• Sea level rise Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas and occurs naturally in the atmosphere where it traps heat. It has a long life and can stay in the atmosphere for thousands of years.

1. Adding more carbon dioxide

• Burning of fossil fuels
• Manufacturing cement

1. Remove carbon dioxide

• Photosynthesis Ocean Acidification - ocean takes up carbon dioxide Industrialization in late 19th century - add carbon dioxide to the pool 2013 - 400 parts per million for the first time in the measurement series Now - 420 parts per million Warmest year on record is 2016 and the 10 warmest year on record have all occurred since 2005 Earth’s temperature has risen by 0.08 degrees per decade since 1880. Rate of warming over the past 40 years is more than twice that of that. Singapore is located in an area which is predicted to be somewhat more strongly affected by climate change. Urban Heat Island Effect With the rising temperatures around the globe, we have come to realise that the lifestyle of rich countries is unsustainable causing harm to not only wildlife but to human societies as well Unsustainable lifestyle striking back at:

• Nature, biodiversity, natural resources

• Human societies, livelihoods, peace and security

• Economic stability, risks Extreme weather and environmental disasters hit poor countries the worst, even though they contributed less to emissions. But in the long run all human societies are vulnerable to the effects of climate change and environmental exploitation. SGD Goals established to attain these goals by 2030

• End poverty

• Protect the planet

  Promote peace and prosperity

  • Action in one area will affect outcomes in others
  • Development must balance social, economic and environmental sustainability There are 17 integrated goals, action in one area will affect outcome in others; development must balance social, economic and environmental sustainability. Singapore has responded to the SD Goals in a voluntary national review report, outlining its approach to each of the SD Goals. Singapore has more experience in planning to ensure reliable sources of basic needs. Characteristics of Complex of Sustainable Development Problems - Wicked Problem

• Long range of interconnected but unique problems

• Multiple causes, hard to define “the problem”

• No generalisable solution, no right or wrong, rather better or worse

• Solutions tend to ramify throughout the system

• Solutions can take a long time to evaluate Interdisciplinary Approach to a Complex Problem

• Multidisciplinary

Additive knowledge of different disciplines

• Interdisciplinarity

Integration and synthesis of different disciplines

• Transdisciplinarity

Across, between and beyond disciplines Three Perspective Model

• Society
  • Environmental justice and unequal distribution of eg. rich countries contribute the highest carbon dioxide emission by far but poor countries suffer disproportionately from the climate change effects and sea level rise. At the UN climate summit in Copenhagen in 2009, the rich countries of the world pledged to donate 100 billion US dollars per year to less wealthy nations by 2020 to help them adapt to climate change and mitigate further rises in temperature. But this target has not been met despite dire need.
  • Understanding human behaviour to implement changes for sustainability

In the Singapore Green Plan, the well-being of the citizens is part of the sustainability work eg. more recreational green spaces and cycling parks for us to enjoy a more sustainable lifestyle. Planting 1 million trees will help cool down the island and also stimulate community spirit by involving citizens in the planting. Programmes to reduce human-wildlife conflicts and help us co-exist with the island’s wild fauna are other parts of the Singapore Green Plan.

• Risk of political conflict or humanitarian crisis due to climate change or environmental degradation
• Economy “Only accountants can save the world” said the president of the World Business Council for sustainable Development at the Sustainability Forum in 2012 He argues that financial decision-making and sustainability need to be integrated, not separate, with sustainability work taking place in the Sustainability Department
• Needed: Sustainability accountants, for sustainable capital investments
• Integration of financial decision making and sustainability work
• Stating potential social and environmental impact on profits
• Effect on valuation, investment
• Transition to Circular Economy

Three basic principles (Ellen MacArthur Foundation):

1. Eliminate waste and pollution
2. Circulate products and materials through reuse, repair or remanufacturing
3. Regenerate nature: instead of becoming waste in the end, products are a part of a circular regenerating system that never ends “In a properly built circular economy, one should rather focus on avoiding the recycling stage at all costs. It may sound straightforward, but preventing waste from being created in the first place is the only realistic strategy.” - World Economic Forum

• Green Economy in Singapore
  • Enterprise Sustainability Programme
  • Carbon tax introduced in 2019 has already supported projects that help enterprises reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. Home-grown innovation. The Research Innovation and Enterprise Plan 2025 encourages homegrown innovations and make it more attractive for companies to base their R&D activities in Singapore to develop new sustainability solutions for the world
• Environment
• Laws of nature govern processes of climate change and environmental degradation
• Intrinsic value of nature
• Human dependence on natural resources
• Natural climate solutions, eg. mangrove forests protect against storms and flooding
• Tree planting Singapore’s Context
• More green spaces
• Education and appreciation for local wildlife
• Limit pollution of water
• Conservation initiatives

Week 2 No Poverty, Social Inclusion and Equality

1. POVERTY

• In 2015, more than 734 million people, around 10% of the world was living in extreme poverty, earning < $1.90 a day
• According to 2015 estimates, more than 160 million children were estimated to be at risk of continuing to live in extreme poverty by 2030

Poverty implies

• Lack of income, productive resources to ensure sustainable living
• Hunger and malnourishment, social discrimination, exclusion, and lack of participation in decision-making
• Ending poverty is the first of the 17 SDG adopted by the UN
• Number of people living in poverty is declining gradually over the last 3 decades
• In 1990, about 1.9 billion people, which is 36% of the global population, was living in extreme poverty
• In 2010, about the number went down by about 1 billion or about 16%
• Between 2015 and 2017, there has been a substantial decrease in poverty rate
• Presently, about 10% of the population is currently living in poverty
• Face difficulty of ending poverty

ie. rate of poverty decline has been slowed significantly

COVID-19

• Led to the first rise in extreme poverty in 3 decades
• Pushed more than 100 million people to extreme poverty in 2020
• Pandemic caused income, job losses and work slowdowns have been especially damaging to poor households, including women, youths, low-wage and informal workers World Bank’s Target: To have no more than 3% of the world population live below the poverty line by 2030 Measurement of Poverty

1. International poverty line: Costs of basic food for adequate nutrition, clothing, healthcare, and shelter needs in low-income countries. When the poverty line is shifted, people move in or out of poverty.
2. Purchasing power parity (PPP) estimates: solves the problem of the difficulty of creating the poverty line due to eg. different costs of food in different countries.
   1. It is a theoretical exchange rate at which you can buy the same amount of goods and services with another currency.
   2. Eg. Burger costs 2 pounds in London and S$4inSingapore,thenthePPPexchangerateis1poundtoS$2. Therefore, to calculate the international poverty line, world bank considers the average of the national poverty line of 15 very poor countries converted to PPP estimates.

• New International Poverty Line is set at $1.90/day
• In 2022, it was updated to $2.15/day Profile of Global Poor
• Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, houses 76% of the world’s extreme poverty
• In 2010, poverty rate in South Asia was as high as about 30% but number has rapidly declined in recent years
• Sub-saharan Africa poverty rate increased
• Middle East and North Africa’s poverty rate also increased from 2.3% in 2013 to 10% in 2018
• East Asia has the fastest economic growth + decline of extreme poverty, mainly China
• The poor are predominantly rural, young, and under educated.

Eg. In 2018, half of the poor were children younger than 15 years old.

• Women are overrepresented among the poor globally. SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA AND EXTREME POVERTY Problem
• Countries’ economy might be increasing, but GDP per capita may decrease due to high population growth, 2.5% per annum
• COVID-19 impacts: the region plunged into a recession in 2020 Solutions that might help end poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa - Accelerate Economic Growth

1. Farm productivity - farmers are too poor to spend on soil refilling for good crop yield (agriculture poverty trap)
   1. Half to one ton of grain per hectare, which is extremely low
   2. Other parts of the developing world can achieve about 4 to 5 times of it
   3. Up to 10 times in US and Western Europe
2. Urban productivity
3. National Infrastructure
4. Human capital investment (in education etc) SOUTH ASIA AND EXTREME POVERTY Solutions
5. High-population density: Rapidly growing population
6. Human development: India’s child malnutrition level is almost double those of Sub-Saharan Africa
7. Primary Education: Extremely low enrollment in primary education
8. Gender inequality / disparity
9. Governance: Higher level of corruption Came into existence around 1970, Official Development Assistance (ODA): Government aid mainly donated by high income countries for promoting economic development in developing countries. Aimed to build capital or capacity in poor countries, such as paved roads, expanded power grids and more clinics and schools, and capacities such as training and salaries for teachers.

• High income countries will donate around 1% of GDP every year to help lower income countries
• 70% of it was intended to come mainly through government-to-government grants and low-interest loans
• Remaining 30% was proposed to come through private contributions such as corporations, foundations and charitable organisations
• All time high ODA assistance was mobilised in 2021: about US$179 billion which is about 4.4% higher than the donations received in 2020
• Even with these all-time high numbers, ODA was quite significantly less than the intended amounts
• The combined income of the high-income donor countries is about $40trillionperyear.Theintendeddonationtargetthroughofficialchannelsisabout0.7$280 billion per year. It shows that the actual ODA available in 2021 was clearly much less than the ideal number However, foreign aid might be hurting low income countries instead (eg. government corruption and slowing their growth). Some researchers advocate the use of foreign aid for stimulating development in poor countries. It is important to understand that foreign aid cannot be a long-term way of life in developing countries, or a permanent solution. It is a temporary helping hand to push these countries on the ladder of economic development so that they can self-sustain their growth in the longer term. Once they reach a certain level of economic growth, they will no longer need financial help.
• Aid Distribution
  • Project based aid
  • Public health aid ODA still remains as the most stable external resource for developing countries.

1. SOCIAL INCLUSION AND EQUALITY

• Social inclusion is a society for all

“A society that entails respect for human rights, cultural diversity, and democratic governance, and upholds principles of equality and equity.”

• Broad-based property, eliminating discrimination, equal protection under the laws, ensuring that every human being can meet basic needs and enabling high social mobility.

*Social Mobility - a child born poor has the opportunities to escape from poverty A socially inclusive society aims to 1) eliminate discrimination, 2) enable high social mobility, and 3) ensure that every human can meet basic needs. SDGs (3 direct + 3 indirect goals for achieving social inclusion)

1. Peace Justice and Strong Institutions
2. Reduce Inequalities
3. Sustainable cities and communities
4. Quality Education
5. Good Health and Well being
6. Gender Equality Income Inequality: Measure of Income Inequality

• Some degree of differences in come are expected due to basic differences in people, their abilities and circumstances
• Gini coefficient: statistical measure of income inequality within a country or social group
  • 0 = good (perfect equality, every citizen has the same income)
  • 1 = bad (perfect inequality, one citizen is earning all the income)
• Gini coefficient does not show the overall wealth / income of a country, quality of life, or general economic well-being
• South Africa rank 1 in lowest income equality in the world, richest 10% hold 70% wealth, >50% live in poverty
• Western, Central and Eastern Europe enjoys relatively equal income Reasons for Income Inequality
• Social and historical factors:
  • Racial discrimination
  • Social discrimination
  • Ethnic discrimination
  • Gender discrimination
• Forces widening of the income gap
  • Skills, education and globalisation
  • Technology and digital revolution
  • Political influence and economic winners
  • Redistribution policies
• Social Mobility Achieve Income Inequality:
• By 2030, progressively achieve and sustain income growth of the bottom 40% of the population at a rate higher than the national average
• By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, or economic status, etc.
• Adopt policies, especially fiscal, wage and social protection policies, and progressively achieve greater equality
• Improve the regulation and monitoring of global financial markets and institutions and strengthen the implementation of such regulations
• Ensure enhanced representation for developing countries in decision-making in global international economic and financial institutions
• Ensure equal opportunity and reduce inequalities of outcome, including by eliminating discriminatory laws, policies, etc.
• Facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people Gender Inequality: Measuring Gender Inequality
• The Gender Inequality Index (GII): Reproductive health (maternal mortality rate, adolescent fertility rate), female empowerment (share in parliament and higher education), and labour force participation. A low GII indicates low inequality between women and men
• Gender Development Index (GDI): Measures gender inequalities in achievement in three basic dimensions of human development - health, education, and estimated earned income. The higher the GDI, the smaller the gap between women and men Reason for Gender Inequality
• Labour force participation and the gender pay gap
• Double shift at home
• A growing challenge from automation: affecting women more
• Economic fallout due to pandemics and other shocks
• Gender-based violence: 1 in 3 women has been been subjected to sexual / non-sexual violence Achieve Gender Inequality:
• End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere
• Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres
• Recognise and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services, etc.
• Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision- making
• Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights
• Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage

Week 3 Food Security and Global Food System

CHALLENGES

• Feeding 10 billion people
• Eradicating hunger
• Being Healthy
• Promoting economic growth
• Securing jobs
• Saving the planet
• How can the agri-food sector meet the rising demand from a growing world population while at the same time reducing its environmental footprint?
• Singapore is on the frontline of developing plant-based meat options. How are plants better for the environment than real meat? Overview
• In Singapore, most have access to enough food and have never suffered from hunger or malnutrition. What is then the problem with the global food system and why should we think about food security?
  • Worldwide, in 2020, 2.37 billion people lacks food or unable to eat a healthy diet on a regular basis
  • 22% / 148.2 million of children under 5 were stunted*

*the lack of proper diet was preventing normal growth and development

• 6.7% of children under the age of 5 were suffering from wasting
• 5.7% / 38.9 million of children under 5 were overweight*

*makes them more likely to develop high blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, Type-2 diabetes and more

• Production of food worldwide is increasing, while number of people worldwide who are undernourished are also increase by about 150 million from 2019 to 2020, up to 800 million
• More than half of the world’s undernourished people are found in Asia
• Pandemic has amplified the already existing disparities in food distribution and those lacking food have suffered disproportionately from the consequences of the global pandemic UN Sustainability Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. In 2020, the World Food Programme won the Nobel Peace Prize for its effort to combat hunger, for its contribution to bettering conditions for peace in conflict-affected areas and for acting as a driving force in efforts to prevent the use of hunger as a weapon of war and conflict. The prize committee emphasised the link between hunger and armed conflict. War and conflict can cause food insecurity and hunger just as hunger and food insecurity can cause latent conflicts to flare up and trigger the use of violence. We will never achieve the goal of zero hunger unless we also put an end to war and armed conflict. With almost 60% of the world’s 811 million hungry people living in areas affected by armed violence, conflict is the single greatest challenge to achieving zero hunger. Assistance provided by the World Food Programme is not just a lifesaver for people kept in conflict, living under siege or on the run after being forced out of their homes. It can also be the first step towards peace, helping to ease tensions that could escalate into conflict. Relationship between Climate Change and Food Security
• Agriculture contributes to ¼ of total greenhouse gas emissions globally (ie. mainly from changes in land use like deforestation and loss of carbon from soil and methane gas produced in the guts of ruminating animals like cows) Examples of Climate Change Threatening Food Security and People’s Livelihood
• Bangladesh and Vietnam are ‘hot spots’ for climate change impacts such as sea-level rise and saltwater intrusion
• Specifically, rice production is increasingly difficult
• Salinity issues in Bangladesh will most likely lead to significant shortages of water for drinking and irrigation by 2050 (according to the World Bank)
• Climate migration / refugees FOOD SECURITY TERMS

1. Food Availability (Import and Export)

Refers to the availability of sufficient quantities and appropriate quality of food products that are either locally produced or supplied by imports, including food aid

1. Food Accessibility (Governance and Infrastructure)

Refers to adequate access to food resources for a nutritious diet

1. Utilisation

Refers to the utilisation of food in conjunction with adequate diet, clean water, sanitation and healthcare to a state of nutritional well-being, demonstrating the importance of non-food inputs for food security

1. Stability (Resilience)

Refers to a secure population, household or individual access to adequate food at all times, protected from sudden shocks or cyclical events that can threaten availability of and access to food resources FOOD SECURITY IN SINGAPORE

• Imports 90% of food today, vulnerable to disruptions in the food supply chain
• Never experience food insecurity
• To improve food security in Singapore using the 3 food basket

1. Diversifying sources of import supply
2. Boosting local production
   1. “30% of nutritional needs locally by 2030”
   2. Food technology: lab-grown meat
3. Promote expansion overseas to import back to Singapore GLOBAL FOOD SYSTEM: “…the sum of actors, sectors and interactions along the food value chains — R&D, input supply, production, harvesting, storage, transportation, processing, retailing, wholesaling, preparation, consumption and disposal of food.” (Fan, 2021)

• A complex global web of production and consumption
• People, institutions, activities, processes, and infrastructure involved in the production and consumption food THE AGRI-FOOD INDUSTRY
• World’s largest economic sector
• Employs half the global workforce
• Directly and indirectly responsible for about a quarter of global greenhouse gas emissions
  1. 25% - 30% of global greenhouse emissions
  2. Uses 69% of freshwater
  3. Drives degradation of marine and terrestrial ecosystems
  4. Loss of biodiversity and deforestation
• Predicted to hit 10 billion on 2050s
• In less than 30 years, need to support about 2 billion more than today
• In addition to fixing the problem with the over 2 billion people worldwide who already go hungry today As People Get Richer, They Consume More Food
• Need to increase food production worldwide in a sustainable way due to growing population
• Per capita consumption is also increasing, as incomes go up

Eg. 50% more food per person is produced today compared to 1961 MEAT CONSUMPTION

• People tend to consume more meat when they get rich
• Excess consumption lead to health problems and environmental impacts (eg. deforestation depletion of freshwater resources, loading of nutrients, pollution due to pesticides, soil erosion and degradation) Strategies for Producing More Food Sustainably
• More sustainable agricultural practices
• Reducing food waste
• Shifting diets from meat to vegetables
• Food technology FOOD WASTE
• According to FAO, one third of all produced food will be globally wasted in 2020
• Great losses during the production line, in shops, and where food is consumed
• Reducing waste is a way to increase food availability without increasing production Black Soldier Fly Larvae Turn Food Waste Into Nutrients in Singapore
• Food waste converted into nutritious compost which can then be used to grow local food, or even as animal feed
• It is a closed food loop + circular economy: no end of product life, just the next stage VEGGIES FEED MORE PEOPLE
• The lower down in the energy pyramid we feed, the more energy is available and the more people we can feed
• Energy pyramid:
  1. Energy is lost up the pyramid
  2. Lower energy, feed less people: Sun → Plant → Animals → Man
  3. More energy, feed more people: Sun → Plant → Man
• Land use for veggies for cropstock vs livestock
  1. Cropstock: for plant production to be eaten
  2. Livestock crops: plants grown to feed animals
  3. More land is used to grow livestock crops (27%) than cropstock (7%) LAB-GROWN MEAT
• Singapore was first in the world to approve the sale of lab-grown meat to consumers in December 2020
• Multiple alternative protein start-ups set up in Singapore - growing industry

Week 4 Water - Availability and Sustainable Management of Water Resources

CHALLENGES

• Water stress levels around the world
  • 17 countries face high levels of baseline water stress (one - quarter)
  • 44 countries face a high level stress
  • Climate change makes water demand difficult to predict
• Water and sanitation for all in a pandemic
  • Some families reported that available water was unaffordable or inaccessible due to physical and/or social constraints
  • For some, handwashing was forgone due to unexpected shut offs or contamination
  • Some household prioritise consumption over hygiene when water supplies were limited
  • Challenge of hand hygiene and the barriers of frequent hand-washing reflect the importance of making rapid progress to ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all

UN Sustainability Goal 6: Access to adequate sanitation and hygiene for all, improved water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimising release of hazardous chemicals and materials and improve water use efficiency. GLOBAL CONCERN ON WATER RESOURCES Water is a Human Right

• Entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic consumption
• 1 in 3 people don’t have access to clean water
• 2 in 5 lack handsafe water
• More than 670 million people still practise open defecation
• Hand hygiene saves lives
• Climate change-related floods and droughts and other water-related disasters account for 70% of all deaths due to natural disasters worldwide Water Contamination
• Contaminated water kills more people than disasters and conflicts
• The widespread scourge of water pollution is an invisible crisis that will worsen as the planet warms, causing more damage to health, ecosystems, economics, than is commonly understood
• An “invisible crisis” that involves water inequality and gender inequality
• Death from diarrhoea caused by unclean drinking watch are estimated at half a million each year and most of them are young children

Eg. More than 300,000 children die every year from diarrhoeal diseases caused by unsafe water and poor sanitation in Africa. Africa has high risk of desertification which reduces the availability of freshwater and increase the risk of water inequality in the future

• Gender inequality in the region is prominent: more than 25% of the population must walk 30 minutes or more to collect water, most are females

Eg. Take time away from income generation Water Pollution: Affects economic inequality and the continuation of inequality

• The pollutant that disproportionately impacts poor and socially-discriminated communities is usually sanitation-related
• These waterborne diseases such as diarrhoea or Hepatitis A are preventable by simple treatment
• However, 80% of the world’s wastewater is released into the environment without treatment, due to poor water infrastructure
• Water shortage concerns in global development efforts have overshadowed water pollution
• The use of nitrogen as a fertiliser has increased by more than 700% since 1960, with nearly all the growth occurring in Asia
• Report indicated that long-term exposure to nonpoint source pollution for agriculture during childhood results in lower earnings when the children enter into adulthood
• Such economic inequality and water pollution will create a vicious cycle and intergenerational poverty
• Current water treatment technology can remove up to 90% of microplastics.
• Nanoplastics, with an upper size limit of one micrometre, are tiny enough to remain and disperse through a water column where organisms including humans can easily consume them

1. Competition for water demand for other essentials such as food production

• This is because of urbanisation, climate change, and rising income for more calories and complex foods
• Agriculture needs to expand by 70% by 2050
• Agriculture is the largest water user, but there is a shortage of funds to maintain irrigation facilities
• Good irrigation for clean and efficient system
• Water must be treated as an economic good
• Using financial instruments to encourage water savings and generate revenues to address both issues
• Market-driven pricing, volumetric charges, treatable water rights are not a priority in LDCs
• Development and infrastructure planning
• New policies help to improve future water security

1. A non-traditional threat: Water scarcity in urban area

• More than 40% of residents in cities of the Global South lack quality water daily
• Lack of access to piped-in water means that families must buy water that needs financial cutbacks on other needs
• Cost more than 50 times as piped utility water
• May result in finding unsafe ground and surface water at their own expense for their health and time or buying water at the opportunity cost of food, education, healthcare, electricity etc. Eg. 2018, South African Cape Town water drought
• Result of unpredictable climate change
• City was 90 days away from turning off their taps

1. Transboundary water conflicts

• Future wars will be over water
• The matter of water diversion was a devastating issue of life and death
• Lack of communication over natural resource can be a bad sign for cooperation
• Most water conflicts are intra-state but transboundary tensions are likely to intensify
• Downstream nations resent the effects of the action of upstream countries
• Water basins in South Asia and Middle East are hotspots for violent conflicts
• Need a framework to resolve tensions with clear communication Solutions to Global Concerns: Water security and sustainable development framework
• Individuals, decision makers, and national and international organisations must find ways to ensure that finite water resources will continue to sustain our planet’s human, environmental and economic needs HOW TO MANAGE WATER RESOURCES - SINGAPORE’S STORY
• Ranked 170th of 193 countries for natural water resources due to limited land area to catch and store the rain
• Collect every drop of water
• Strategies to develop water resources
  1. Traditional sources: rain from the sky
  2. Unconventional sources: sea water and used water from industries and households Catchments
• Total of 17 reservoirs, including the largest Marina Catchment 10,000 ha
• Urbanised catchments: Stormwater collection systems were designed to ensure that only the cleaner parts of the stormwater is extracted and pumped into the reservoir
• The immediate runoff that is by far the most polluted, bypasses the collection facilities
• Catchment area currently makes up ⅔ of Singapore, and will occupy 90% of Singapore’s land area by 2060 Water demand and management
• 430 million gallons a day, approximately 800 Olympic-size swimming pools (ie. homes consuming 45% and the non-domestic sector taking up the rest)
• By 2060, Singapore’s total water demand could almost double with the non-domestic sector accounting for about 70%
• By then, NEWater and desalination will meet up to 85% of Singapore’s future water demand
• As water demand continues to increase, in tandem with population and economic growth, we will need to plan and implement water infrastructure well ahead to secure an adequate and affordable supply of water for future generations 4 National Water Taps

1. Water From Local Catchments
2. Imported Water (from Johor until 2061)
3. NEWater (treat used water using membrane technologies and ultraviolet disinfection, very expensive - can meet up to 50% of the nation’s current water needs)
4. Desalinated Water (uses reverse osmosis for desalination, most energy intensive, price is 2 times of NEWater) Three Cs
5. Challenges
6. Capacity
7. Cost Deep Tunnel Sewerage System (DTSS)

• Streamline how Singapore collects, treats and disposes, or reclaims used water
• Freeing up previous land for higher-value uses
• By 2050, whenever you flush the toilet, take a shower or wash the dishes the used water will flow into the underground network of tunnel sewers and be channelled by gravity to one of the 3 water reclamation plants for treatment
• When completed, the DTSS will shrink the land occupied by used water infrastructure by 50% and collect every drop of used water, for treatment and purification Consumption habits
• Between 2003 and 2016, households cut their water use per person per day from 165 litres to 148 litres
• Long-term goal is 140 litres by 2030
• Study on 400 local households, from 2018 to 2019, found that

1. 66% of the households use running water to wash toilets instead of bucket or pail
2. 41.5% used the same method for pet care
3. 50% washed food under running taps and washed their laundry using a washing machines when it’s not fully loaded
4. 94% wash dishes under running taps

• To improve water consumption habits
  1. Right water pricing
  2. Mandating water efficiency standards and values (eg. suppliers have to label water efficiency of their water fitting and device on display)
  3. Encourage water conservation practices Impacts of Climate Change
• Dry Spell
• Plankton Blossom
• Heavy Rainfall Singapore has achieved prosperity through hard work
• The 4 National Taps serve to supply 100% of our population with potable water at the tap with 100% sanitation
• Integrated urban and water planning to enhance the quality of our living environment (Active, Beautiful and Clean Waters programme)
• Encourage the motivation for future water stability

Week 5 Energy and Climate Change - Background, Technologies and Policy Instruments

• Global rate of population increase has slowed substantially, population rising rapidly

Eg. World population to increase from 8 billion to 9 billion people on planet by 2040

• Causing economy to grow and destroying the environment
• US, Canada, Australia and several european countries are high income countries
• Asia and Middle East countries are upper-middle income countries
• Sub-Saharan Africa and some parts of Asia are low-income countries Gross domestic product (GDP) is a monetary measure of the market value of all the final goods and services produced and sold in a specific time period by countries
• Even with huge income disparity, the one thing that connects these people is their constant struggle for improvement:
  1. Poor: Struggle to find food, shelter, drinking water, sanitation and good health
  2. Middle income group: Better opportunities for themselves and their children
  3. High income group: Even higher levels of well being mainly through the help of technological advancements
• Economy consists of 2 simple blocks (ie. production and consumption)
• We are completely dependent on the environment: Over exploiting the environment is a threat to our well-being and future generations Global Carbon Dioxide Emissions
• Present emission are about 180 times higher than 1850, start of industrialization
• In 2000, 23-24 million tons of C02 is emitted and in 2020, 35 million tons of C02 emitted

Eg. 50% increase in 20 years

• Measurement of CO2:

Parts Per Million (PPM): How many molecules of CO2 are there in every 1 million molecules of air

• IPCC findings found that atmospheric C02 concentration in 2019 was higher at any time in the last 2 million years Greenhouse effect is a natural process that makes life possible on planet Earth By trapping radiation, GHGs maintain a perfect temperature of around 18 degrees
• Global surface temperature increased by around 1 degree celsius since industrialisation
• The increase in temperature is associated with increase frequency and intensity of heat Effects of Global Warming
• Climate-fuelled disasters killed 475,000 people between 2000 and 2019
• More than $2.50 trillion of financial losses
• Climate change is increasing the intensity and frequency of disasters that human settlements have been experiencing for years
  1. From 1980 to 1999: More than 4000 disasters + 1.19 million deaths + $1.5 trillion
  2. From 2000 to 2019: About 7,400 natural disasters + 1.23 million deaths + $3 trillion
• Number of natural disasters reported in last 20 years (in descending order): China, US, India, Philippines, Indonesia
• Around 190,000 killed in these disasters, high deaths in Pakistan, India and China
• Richer countries deal with these impacts of climate change better than poorer countries which suffer earliest and most Major Greenhouse Gases
• C02 (76%), Methane (16%), Nitrous Oxides (6%) and 3 Fluorinated Gases (2%)
• Impact of greenhouse gases: concentration, lifetime and global warming potential
  1. Global warming potential of methane is higher than C02 Generation Activities
• 44% of global CO2 activities come from electricity and heat generation activities
• Next major contributor is transport sector
• Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and gas are predominantly used to generate electricity and heat, run rail, road and other forms of transport
• Burning of fossil fuels leads to carbon in fuel combining with oxygen in the air to form CO2 and energy during combustion process ISSUES
• IPCC suggested limit of global temp increase to 1.5 degree, currently 1.1 degree
• If we do not keep to this limit, long lasting and irreversible damage will be done

Eg. Permanently lose forests, which act as carbon sink since 1960s forests have soaked 25% of total CO2 emissions

• National Institute for Space Research shows that significant parts of the Amazon Rainforest emit more C02 than they absorb in recent times due to deforestation SDG
• Sustainable development aims for a world in which
  • Economic growth is widespread
  • Extreme poverty is eradicated
  • Community is strengthened through relevant policies that promote social trust and equal opportunities for everyone; and
  • The environment is protected from human induced degradation ENERGY POVERTY: “The lack of access to sustainable modern energy services and products.”
• In 2010, 1.2 billion people did not have access to electricity
• In 2020, 771 million people did not have access to electricity
• There is a high degree of energy disparity: OECD countries (mainly rich countries) use much more electricity per person than the global average
• Cannot cease industrialisation or the use of electricity (many people still live in poverty and do not have access to electricity) We must focus on the planet but we must also focus on people and prosperity Solar photovoltaics is the most popular method of power generation ACTIONS TO TACKLE CLIMATE CHANGE

1. Emissions Mitigation vs Adaptation

• Advanced technologies, clean energy and behaviour change is the first step towards decarbonisation of the economy
• Mitigation is essential and our only shot to deal with climate change
  1. Energy efficiency
  2. Low carbon transition: economy use as little carbon as possible
     • Decarbonise our energy system: producing and using energy with lower emissions of CO2 through clean sources
     • Fuel shift from fossil fuels to electricity
• Adaptation can keep us save and buy some time / resilience towards climate change

Eg. Building new flood defences and barriers against storm surge

• We do not need to discard adaptation plans even though we have implemented emission mitigation measures

Clean Sources of Energy

1. Solar Power
   1. Solar thermal: Direct heating of water or air
   2. Concentrated solar thermal: Concentrated solar energy to generate heat then electricity
   3. Solar photovoltaics (PV): Generate electricity using photovoltaics panels
   4. Passive solar heating: Naturally heat the buildings
2. Wind Power
   1. Onshore wind: Land-based wind farms
   2. Offshore wind: Wind farms in the bodies of water
   3. Hybrid system: Solar + Wind
3. Hydro Power
   1. Run-of-river hydropower
   2. Storage hydropower system
   3. Pumped storage hydropower systems | | | |---|---| |BENEFITS|PITFALLS| |Never run out|Natural resources availability and intermittence| |Reduces emissions: saves the environment|Storage issues| |Overall, saves money|Higher upfront costs| |Potential to add green jobs, local employment and electricity access to remote locations|Space intensive: Lots of land area is required| |Mostly immune to market fluctuations, stable energy prices and less dependence on imported energy|Social acceptability|

Energy Efficiency

• Greater output per unit of energy input

Energy input - energy conversion method or device - useful energy output

• Use of technologies, systems or methods that require less energy for performing the same task function. Thus, eliminating energy waste

Energy efficient technologies - savings of enormous amount of energy in heating, cooling and ventilation of buildings; electrical appliances, transport and several other applications

Energy-efficiency

• Reducing GHG emissions
• Reducing demand for energy imports
• Lowering cost (household level and economy wide)
• Potential for energy-efficiency improvement in almost every sector of the economy
  • Zero energy buildings: Increased energy efficiency + renewable energy
  • Efficient energy generation and distribution
  • Efficient vehicles
  • Behaviour change: Use less energy, adopt energy-efficient appliances, cut wastage
  • Long-distance freight transport, maritime and shipping

Global Installed Capacity of Renewable Energy

The share of renewables in global electricity generation was 29% in 2020, a 2% increase from 2019. Also means that 71% still comes from fossil fuels.

Week 6 Energy and Climate Change - Policy Instruments and Economics of Climate Change

1. Policies

• Instruments may help to accelerate the adoption of clean energy and the overall decarbonisation of the economy

1. Institutional Approaches (Institution based)

• Internalisation of negative impacts
  • Specification of liability
  • Development of social responsibility

1. Command and Control (Regulatory)

• Direct control over polluters
  • Emission licence
  • Minimum energy-efficiency standard
  • Mandatory energy management practices
  • Building codes Eg. From 2022 onwards, certain appliances will need two ticks minimum

1. Market based tools (Flexibility and economic incentives)

• Cap and Trade allows businesses to reduce their emission at the lowest cost possible. They can sell their unused GHG emission allowance to companies who are producing in excess of their allowance.

1. Non-market Mechanism (Flexibility and economic incentives)

• Carbon Tax in Singapore is $5 per tonne (for every tonne exceeding the limit of 25 kilo tons of CO2): forcing businesses in SG to have an option to choose between reducing CO2 or pay the fine and then transfer the cost to the consumers Eg. Apart from moral and ethical responsibilities, businesses do not have any other incentive to stop CO2 emissions. CO2 is a byproduct of businesses when they are producing their products and services. We need to make polluters pay for polluting but not harm the economy in the process. Governments will need to make sure businesses do not emit CO2 for free anymore.
• Direct price on carbon: tax rate on GHG emission, polluter to pay for every ton of carbon pollution
• Financial incentive to switch to cleaner practices or clean energy
• Government generates revenues that can be invested in other public policy objectives Eg. Worldwide Carbon Pricing Initiatives 64 Carbon Tax and ETS initiatives: Implemented, scheduled or under consideration ECONOMICS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
• Economics’ Rational Agent Theory: Every decision is driven by some kind of cost and benefits calculations
• Intergenerational issue: Willingness to pay today to eliminate risk of climate change in the next 50, 100 or 1000 years
• Hard to quantify pain, suffering and loss of life due to climate change during economical cost benefit analysis. Also, hard to calculate exactly impact on human well being and economy
• Nicholas estimates that if people act now, it might cost 1% of global GDP per year but if we delay, it might cost 5% of global GDP in the future and even then, there might be no recovery at all
• Countries don’t feel that they should be the one making the change: Developing countries think that richer countries made this mess, and they should not need to clean up after them STERN REVIEW: The benefits of strong and early action far outweigh the economic costs of not acting
• Rich countries should take the responsibility to reduce 60-80% of emissions by 2050
• Developing countries should take significant actions too
• Tackling climate change is a pro-growth strategy
• Financial support to developing countries for low-carbon development
• Effective global response with appropriate policies POLITICS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
• China, USA, India, Russia, Japan are the biggest emitters of CO2 in 2018

Eg. India and China presently producing most of the products that rich countries use: much of the industrial emissions are coming from the manufacturing of goods for rich countries

• World average C02 emissions per capita in 2018 was 4.4 tonnes in 2018
• China emitted much more than that which was 7.35 tonnes
• India emitted much lesser than the world average which was 1.79 tonnes per capita
• Several European countries, especially those with oil and gas resources are the some of the biggest per capita emitters
• Australia, USA, Japan, European countries and South Africa are the next big per capita emitters
• However, Qatar is the top emitter of CO2 per capita in 2018
• Even though developing countries have contributed least to the causes of climate change, they have to take significant actions to combat climate change in their own interests
• Global cooperation is needed, No one is safe until everyone is safe:
  1. Eg. If small country that depends heavily on exports does their part in combating climate change but US economy fails due to effects of climate change, small country also very detrimentally impacted
  2. Free ridership: If everyone wants to take advantage of other countries’ efforts to combat climate change, no one will act
• Arguments of the sub-developing countries like India and China are that they are developing to grow their income per capita to attain living standards that developed countries attained decades ago: which is why their present emissions are so high
• US Democrats are pro-climate change actions while Republicans are not
• The fossil fuel industry has the biggest business interest involved

1. International Collaboration

International agreement to limit global carbon emissions In 1992, the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) was signed with 195 countries

• The Kyoto Protocol signed in Kyoto (Duhhh) in 1998 with 192 countries agreeing to take legally binding targets to reduce emissions
• First commitment period of the protocol ended in 2012 and after three years of negotiation, saw a landmark agreement in the Paris Agreements of 2015
• Most countries amended the agreement and agreed to limit global warming to <2 degrees celsius
• They agree to provide financial and tech support to low income countries
• The US withdrew from the agreement in 2020 and joined again in 2021
• Some turn of events in the recent climate meeting in glasgow: the commitment to phase out fossil fuels was changed to phase down fossil fuels at the last minute
• Many developed countries aim to achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 CHALLENGES
• Advanced technologies
• Low carbon / clean electricity
• Switching to clean fuel
• Energy-efficiency
• Financial and technical assistance to low-income countries to meet their emission reduction goals and be part of the sustainable development
• Behaviour change: every individual has a part to play
• Participation of civil society, research institutes, non-profit, etc
• Large scale R&D plans to tackle the technical challenges of low carbon future
• Policies to accelerate the decarbonisation of the economy
• Market tools for efficient reduction of GHG emissions

Week 7 Pollution: Air, Light, Noise and Plastic

POLLUTION Presence of substances and heat in environmental media (air, water, land) whose nature, location or quantity produces undesirable environmental effects.

• It was human who either created, concentrated or made more of this pollutant, whether it’s a hazardous chemical, a greenhouse gas, or fumes from combustion AIR POLLUTION
• Not a modern problem, since 17th century
• Coal combustion caused by industrial activity increased air pollution

Eg. Great Smog of London, 1952 (Beijing Haze Events in January 2012)

• Domestic coal tended to be a relatively low-grade sulphurous variety, which increased the amount of sulphur dioxide in this smoke
• During 1990 to 2010, emissions have increased in East and South Asia and other developing countries. Air quality in Asian megacities shows value in episode conditions that are similar to the highly polluted atmosphere of London in the smog episode of 1952 Health Implications
• WHO statistics showed that 9 out of 10 people worldwide breathe polluted air but the poor are disproportionately affected
• Up to 7 million people, the vast majority in developing countries die prematurely every year because of air pollution
• Around 600,000 children under the age of 15 years breathe air that is so polluted that it puts their health and development at serious risk
• It also revealed that when pregnant women are exposed to polluted air, they are more likely to give birth prematurely and have small low birth weight children
• Air pollution also impacts neurological development and cognitive ability, and can trigger asthma and childhood cancer
• Children exposed to high levels of air pollution may be at greater risk of chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease later in life
• For adults, the fine particles in polluted air penetrate deep into the lungs and cardiovascular systems, resulting in various diseases including stroke, heart disease and lung cancer
• Of the estimate 7 million deaths that occur every year from exposure to these particles, 4.2 million are caused by outdoor air pollution and 3.8 million by cooking with polluting fuels such as kerosene, animal drugs, crop waste and coal Agriculture Implications
• Air pollution’s toll on crops appears in the long run through reduced growth injury or outright premature crop death Climate Implications
• Air pollution is responsible for up to 40% of global warming, causing temperatures to rise and wreck havoc on crops worldwide
• According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, crop yields of staples like rice, maize and wheat will decrease by 10% per degree Celsius of global warming
• Air pollution disrupts not only food production but also food access
• In areas like the tropic and subtropics not only will the productivity of food crops decline, but subsistence farmers and outdoor labourers will face reduced workdays as breathability worsens and daily heat rises limiting their income and increasing the price of food worldwide 2021 WHO Global Air Guidelines
• Adjusted its standards for 6 pollutants

Eg. Particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide

• Guidelines are not legally binding PLASTIC POLLUTION (WHITE POLLUTION)
• Plastic pollution is pervasive, affecting marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems globally
• White pollution: stemmed from people discarding white plastic bag or single use tableware
• Since 1964, plastic production has increased 20-fold, reaching 311 million metric tons in 2014
• Between 1950 to 2015, more than 6,700 million metric tons of plastic were produced
• Plastic packaging accounting for 26% of all plastics used, can help food stay fresh longer and can, because of its low weight, lead to fuel saving during transport compared to other packaging Great Pacific Garbage Patch is a collection of marine debris in the North Pacific Ocean, spanning from the US West Coast to Japan and bounded by the North Pacific Subtropical gyre
• The gyre rotates around 20 million square kilometres
• 80% of plastics in the Garbage Patch comes from land-based sources
• 20% comes from boats and other marine sources
• Synthetic fishing nets made up nearly half of the mass of the giant patch Microplastics (<5mm in size)

1. Primary: Specifically designed to be very small

Eg. Plastic microbeads from face wash, fine plastic powder in toothpastes

1. Secondary: Plastic broken down into microplastics over time due to sun / abrasion

Eg. Synthetic clothes in washing machines

• Researchers shows humans consume more than 100,000 microplastics particles a year 3 Forms of Plastic (Macro, Meso and Micro)
• There’s an emergence of nanoplastic
• Primary nanoplastics are intentionally manufactured
• Secondary nanoplastic is just break down of bigger plastics
• Effects of microplastics on human is not known UN Environmental Programme (UNEP)
• Developing a methodology using citizen science data to measure marine plastics on beaches and shorelines
• No standardisation in approaches or internationally agreed measures of plastic pollution
• Threat by plastic pollution is still not legally recognised by many countries and corporations
• Multinational organisations are pushing for recyclability as priority and ducking their responsibility to tackle plastic pollution: ignoring waste reduction strategies in favour of less sustainable strategies
• In developing countries, sachet economy is created: coffee and instant noodles are the most extensive plastic pollution
• In 2019, >8 million tetra packs are sold in Vietnam but a tiny portion are recycled as recycling infrastructure is overwhelmed by growth
• In 2021, SG plastic recycling rate is 4%, lowest of all the waste streams like metal and wood NOISE POLLUTION Overview
• In Singapore, there are 218 workplace noise-induced deafness cases per year
• In Singapore, there were 15,000 noise complaints, 3 times that of 2019 Eg. Dragging of furniture, loud music, renovations, constructions and koels

However, most cases did not break the law of 90 decibels as an average of over 5 minutes at residential buildings Outdoor Noise

• Average outdoor sound level in SG was 69.4 decibels compared to NEA recommendation of 67 decibels
• Mature estates are nosier since higher road density and design of estate
• Sound usually dissipate in open area, enclosed places such as sheltered linkways in the estate can help trap the sound and they can reach an average noise level of 78 decibels (>55 decibels prescribed by WHO) Impact of Noise
• Prolonged exposure to urban noise will lead to
  1. Cardiovascular disease
  2. Stress and anxiety
  3. Insomnia
• 2021 study shows that most Singaporeans are at risk of adverse non-auditory health effects
  1. Metabolic effects
  2. Mental health - risk of hypertension
  3. Cognitive effects
• Prolonged exposure to noise of a high volume will lead to
  1. Physical damage to the inner ear
  2. Hearing loss (acute or permanent)
• Tinnitus (ie. ringing in ears) is a sign of damage to the inner ear (hearing test is advised) NTU’s Efforts
• Anti Noise Control Windows
• Promises to cut noise levels by at least 10 decibels
• However, speakers obstruct views and need to be a lot bigger to reduce noise in a space like an apartment
• 5 to 10 years is needed before the tech is improved and viable for commercial & residential applications Natural Landscape
• When human starts adding artificial, unfamiliar noises to natural soundscapes, it alters the acoustic environment
• Animals are affected by noise pollution

Eg. Communication, finding food, mating, navigation and escaping predators etc…

• Australian Pobblebonk Frogs can usually hear up to 800 metres but in noisy areas, only 14 metres
• Highway noises make it difficult for prairie dogs to find food, hear predators and communicate
• Rising levels of intense underwater sound are produced by shipping traffic, military sonar, seismic surveys and oil and gas explorations
• This can cause hearing loss in cetaceans like dolphins, whales and porpoises
• High-intensity sonar can travel thousands of km in deep waters and interfere with cetaceans communication and navigation systems and affect their ability to find food LIGHT POLLUTION Benefits of Lit Place
• Lit places are perceived to be safer: more accessible and less crime Implications of Light Pollution on Humans
• Light pollution by humans is increasing in range and intensity by 2% per year according to a team in the UK
• Light pollution disrupts the human circadian rhythm, affecting when we feel sleepy or awake Implications of Light Pollution on Animals
• Light pollution is usually correlated to other threats to wildlife like urbanisation adding to a sum to environmental stress like interference with animal behaviours, reproductive success and survival
• Light pollution affect insect behaviours unnaturally which affects the pollination cycle and them as a food source for birds

Eg. Turtle hatchling are supposed to follow moonlight to the sea but the street lights etc could confuse them

Week 8 Waste Management - Responsible Consumption and Production

MODERN CONSUMERISM First stage: 1500s - 1800s

• Adoption of new, exotic and luxury goods, including tea, coffee, spices, silks, etc,
• Mainly restricted to urban elites who can afford them Second stage: 1800s - 1880s
• Industrialisation and the rise of a large urban middle class
• Spread and use of manufactured goods. Third stage: 1880s - 1930s
• Consumerism: An economic strategy that stimulated an increase in production of consumer goods, initially a more positive phenomenon
• Politics of consumption and the receipt of living of a living wage became a dominant concern in all industrial communities
• It is an economic strategy that stimulates or increases the production of consumer goods. Surge in the circulation of goods helps improve the nation’s living standards
• Idea was especially attractive during the great depression Fourth stage: 1930s - 1970s
• Widespread acceptance in the west about the idea that a modern democratic society required access to education and employment based on ability and skills
• Require economy based mainly on production and distribution of consumer goods
• Consumption and production would improve living standards, avoid social conflicts, and increase prosperity for all POST-WAR ECONOMY Economic consumerism in post war economy, was accompanied by expansion of new industries such as large-scale car manufacturing, chemicals, plastic and electronics
• Consumption our way of life
• Convert the buying and use of goods into rituals
• Seek our spiritual satisfaction, our ego satisfaction, in consumption
• Consumed, burned up, worn out, replaced, and discarded at an ever-increasing pace Individual choices became opportunities for revealing and remaking identity - a way of expressing your dedication Eg. To peace and social equality or to saving the environment Fifth stage: 1970s - Now (Environmental Crisis)
• Exponential increase in consumption associated with globalisation and digitalisation
• Seems that economics and political survival now depends on expensive consumerism CONSUMPTION: ACCESS TO EXCESS
• Consumption is the process of using up a resource, purchase of newly produced goods for current use and is defined as the consumption of products and resources closely associated with social class, identity, group membership and age
• Consumerism is when you’re buying things that you don’t necessarily need for the sake of buying them
  1. Excessive consumption, throwaway society
  2. Directly related to environmental damage and the contradiction between the claims made by capitalism and instances of economic, gender, and racial inequalities found with it Singapore Context
• Singapore waste increased by 7 folds over the past 40 years
• Only in 2017, about 7.7 million tons of waste was generated / fill 15,000 Olympic-size swimming pools Consumption Explosion
• Environmental degradation, as we continue to use ever increasing number of resources to fuel our economic activities
• ==Material footprint== refers to the total amount of raw materials extracted to meet final consumption demands, material footprint per capita increasing at an alarming rate
• Growing domestic waste stream is fuelled by people buying electronic products with shorter life cycle and fewer options to repair E-Waste Explosion
• Without a reliable waste management system toxic substances such as mercury, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) contained in e-waste are more likely to be released into the environment
• Humans ingest mercury through seafood
• E-waste contributes directly to global warming, temperature exchange equipment in fridges and aircon can slowly release greenhouse gases such as CFC, UV rays, trap heat Tale of 2 Hemispheres
• Rich countries continue to rely on extract of resources, human labour and global south is a dumping ground for waste
• Their products and service reply on too many natural resources and create harmful emissions when consumed or discarded. CONSUMPTION AS WASTE MAKING
• Material Economy

Eg. Extraction, production, distribution, consumption and disposal

• Cannot use linear system on finite planet
• Consumer dilemma: want to do good, reduce environmental impacts all but also want to look good, buy more clothes Factors that drive and influence consumptions
• Economic factors: income is most important driving force that determines a person power to consume
• Social factors: life around people who influence our buying behaviour, imitating other humans, we wished to be socially accepted. Buying behaviour influenced by other people
• Demographic factors: larger families spend more than smaller ones
• Cultural factors: fundamental values, needs, wants, preferences, perceptions and behaviours observed and learned by consumers from family and people around them Eg. consume more during holidays
• Psychological factors: consumer’s attitude towards a product and its brand image, influenced by marketing strategies FROM IMITATION TO OVERCONSUMPTION The curse of “faster, newer and cheaper”
• Imitation intensifies and accelerates the cycle of manufacture, purchase, use and discard amd compounds its environmental and social effects across the global logistic chains, from production site to store Consumption and well-being
• Once the basic needs have been satisfied, the eventual effect of additional income on happiness becomes negligible
• Consumption paradox: cannot buy happiness
• Social participation and community relations essential for social and psychological well-being become eroded as society grows more affluent FROM OVERCONSUMPTION TO SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION UN Sustainable Development Goals 12: Ensure responsible consumption and production patterns
• Refers to the use of resources which responds to basic needs while minimising the use of natural resources and toxic materials and emission of waste and pollutants over the life cycle to not jeopardise the needs of future generations
• Challenge is integrating environmental sustainability with economic growth and welfare by decoupling environmental degradation from economic growth and doing more with less
• Resource decoupling and impact decoupling are needed to promote sustainable consumption and production patterns and transition towards a greener and more socially inclusive global economy.
• Three Pillars
  1. Environmental Benefits
     • Reduce air, water and land pollution
     • Better and safe management of hazardous material
     • Reduce use of natural resources
     • Optimal use of water and energy
  2. Social Benefits
     • Improve awareness about environmental issues
     • Enhance social welfare and well-being
     • Eliminate waste making and social competition consumerism
  3. Economic Benefits
     • Reduce or eliminate risk by replacing hazardous or toxic substances with environmentally friendly products
     • Reduce the cost of waste management by avoiding waste, reusing and recycling waste
     • Reduce the unit cost of energy, water and raw materials through better process efficiency Circular Economy: Builds Upon Value Retention Loops

1. Reduce by design: using fewer materials per unit of production during their use, influences all life stages of product or a service
2. Refuse, reduce, reuse, repair, refurbish, remanufacture, repurpose and recycle
3. Should apply sustainable economy models, products design to be reused and recycled Circular Economy: Singapore Zero Waste Master Plan

• Goal: Adopting a circular economy approach to waste & resource management practices & shifting towards more sustainable production & consumption
• NEA introduced mandatory packaging reporting in 2020 for producers of packaged products and supermarkets, and targets implementing a framework for managing packing waste, including plastics no later than 2025
• More packaging grocery stores will encourage customers to bring their containers and buy what they need instead of a prepackaged amount
• More competitive prices due to reduce in about 10% of cost due to reduced in packaging Circular Economy: NTU’s 15 Years Plan
• Aims to half the campus carbon emissions, waste, energy used and water by March 2026 compared to baseline level in 2011
• In 2019, jointly developed by the NEA and NTU, waste to energy facilities was built to convert domestic waste from campus to electricity and other useful resources
• Plastic bags not free from October 2018, saving close to 1 million plastic bags a year

Week 9 Sustainable Cities

“Our struggle for global sustainability will be won or lost in cities.” Former UN Secretary General Ban Ki Moon

• 50% of world’s population live in cities
• Lifestyle drives many unsustainable practices both cultural and economical
• SDG 11 Sustainable cities and communities: Inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
• Urban population is Growing Fast
  • Proportion of the urban population globally

55% in 2018

60% in 2030

Projected to be 68% in 2050

• Urban land use globally projected to increase 1.2 million km2 by 2030
• Dense Urban Life
  • Population of cities with at least half a million inhabitants:

In 2018: >1 in 5 people live in

In 2030: 1 in 3 people

• National growth immigrant can be adjusted to reach specific urban growth target

• Megacities refers to those with population > 10 million
• 43 megacities by 2030 (majority in Asia and Africa)
• However, some cities are shrinking (such as US, Europe and Japan)
• Urban populations tend to have higher living standards
  • Higher electricity access
  • Access to improved sanitation and drinking water
  • Access to clean fuels for cooking and heating

*Higher living standards result in a change in lifestyle which results in more consumption

• Donut Economics
  • A compass for human prosperity in the 21st century: surely applicable to cities
  • Consists of:
    • Social foundation: to ensure that no one is left falling short on life’s essential (minimum needs)
    • Ecological ceiling: to ensure that humanity does not collectively overshoot planetary boundaries (do not overwork the planet)
• Between these two boundaries lies a doughnut-shaped space that is both ecologically safe and socially just - a space in which humanity can thrive Cities Interaction with Environment
• Urban growth impacts natural ecosystems (cities may grow by 1.2km2 by 2030, mainly on forest and agricultural land), and urban life leads to direct impacts on the environment: air pollution, water pollution, waste management etc.
• Urban life depends on healthy ecosystems and their benefits (or “ecosystem services”):
  • Water, food, energy provision
  • Less visible benefits

Eg. Carbon sequestration, pollination, cultural heritage Cities Impact on Environment

• Cities account for between 60 and 80% of energy consumption and generate as much as 70% of human-induced greenhouse gas emissions
• Vulnerable to climate change and natural hazards due to the concentration of people and infrastructure ENVIRONMENT HAZARDS

1. Urban Heat Island

• Phenomenon by which a city experiences warmer temperatures than surrounding rural areas
• Temperature difference due to how well the surfaces in each environment absorb and retain heat, denser the urban environment, with less trees and more concrete, the higher the temperature can lead to increase in energy consumption

1. Flooding

• Exacerbated by urbanisation, flooding experienced in urban areas due to the lack of drainage

Eg. Built-up areas means rainwater cannot infiltrate or be stored

• Increase in rainfall intensity, which is expected in many regions, may increase flooding

Eg. Singapore invested in new fleet of flood response vehicles capable of operating in water as deep as 17cm, stepping up forecasting and monitoring technology Urban Challenges – Social Needs

• Providing infrastructure for access to basic needs: housing, education, health, income
• Inequality rising in cities in both developed and developing countries
• 1 billion people live in slums
• Migration adds to the challenge, with most migrants being found in urban areas What is a Sustainable City?
• City that manages all resources it is dependent on in ways that guarantee the well-being of current and future generations, ensuring distributional equity
• Resilient city: A city that is able to withstand, adapt to and recover from shocks and stresses while maintaining its essential functions and promoting long-term sustainability
• 3 pillars of society - economic, social and environmental

Eg. International standard organisation - sustainability dimensions

• Attractiveness / Environment / Resilience / Resource use / Social cohesion / Well-being Singapore Sustainability Blueprint
• Specific indicators about green and blue spaces, help with environmental, social (ie. keep population healthy) and economic (ie. reduce temperature, reduce energy used to cool environment / energy efficiency) dimension
• SDG 11 has 10 targets, have quantitative metrics to access the progress towards target Target 11.6: By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management Target 11.7: By 2030, provide universal access to safe, inclusive, and accessible, green and public spaces, in particular for women and children, older persons and persons with disabilities Target 11.a: Support positive economic, social, and environmental links between urban, peri urban and rural areas by strengthening national and regional development planning Key Challenges
• Pollution and direct impact
• Contribution to climate change
• Addressing vulnerability to climate change and over hazards Solutions
• Decision makers can provide sound urban planning, incentives and regulation that will increase the number of sustainable buildings

Eg. Low carbon transportation, green space and sustainable lifestyle

• Invest in renewable energy, waste management, sustainable and green infrastructure
• Protect cities which are important social, cultural and economic centres from environmental and climate threats NATURE-BASED SOLUTIONS aka Blue and Green Infrastructure
• Blue and green infrastructure is an area or system made of naturally occurring or engineered ecosystem (eg. forest, green roofs, road trees) and managed to provide benefits for people and the environment

Eg. Reducing the urban heat island effect / Reduce urban flooding

Active Beautiful Clean water programme (ABC)

• Reduce the quantity of runoff when it rains to reduce chances of flooding, increase quality of runoff
• Aesthetic and recreational benefits like Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park 4 Perspectives of the Donut, within each perspective have targets
• Local / Social / Global / Ecological AMSTERDAM
• Everything is connected: Housing policy relates to many urban dimensions through the local, global, social, ecological lenses
• Technology is part of it (e.g., rooftop solar panels) … but not the only part!
• It takes time, collaboration and engagement with different stakeholders and communities to identify the most relevant strategy. No one recipe for sustainable cities, complex system
• Cities can help change individuals’ behaviour (eg. improving public transport so that people uses cars less)
• Cities are innovation and creativity hubs, research and universities (ie. technological progress / concentration of financial resources)
• Cities can benefit from scaling effect (ie. denser environment are easier to cool down or heat up through centralised systems / economies of scale)